Montaigne's personal experience as the basis of the book "Experiences". M. Montaigne, "Experiments": a summary

2024 Author: Leah Sherlock | [email protected]. Last modified: 2023-12-17 05:25

Pushkin read it, she constantly lay on the table of Leo Tolstoy. This book was the most popular in the XVI-XVII centuries. Its author, Michel Eikem de Montaigne (b. 28.02.1533) belonged to a new wave of French nobles, descended from the merchant class. The father of the future writer Pierre Eykem was in the royal service, his mother was from a we althy Jewish family.

Dad took his son's education seriously. He himself was a very educated person, and the spirit of antiquity hovered in the family. Little Michel was taken as a teacher by a man who did not know French at all, but was well versed in Latin.

Education and social status

Michel Montaigne had every opportunity to make a brilliant career as a government official. He studied at the best educational institutions in the country: after college in Bordeaux, he brilliantly graduated from the university in Toulouse. The newly baked 21-year-old jurist took up the judicial position of royal adviser, first in Perigueux, but soon transferred to his hometown of Bordeaux. In the service he was appreciated, he hadfriends. The erudite official was twice elected to the post of adviser.

In 1565, Michel favorably married a French noblewoman, Francoise de Chansagne. And three years later, after the death of his father, he entered the possession of the Montaigne family estate, abandoning a career in court. In the future, Michel Montaigne led the life of a local nobleman, devoting himself to literary work.

It was in the family nest that Montaigne's experience poured out on paper.

Essentially these were the idle recordings of an educated progressive aristocrat. He created them at his leisure for fifteen years, not particularly bothering himself with work. During this time, some of the philosopher's views have changed, so the thoughtful reader will find in the "Experiments" several ideas that are diametrically opposed.

French humanist philosopher wrote to the table without even thinking about publishing.

Formal structure of the work

As a free collection of his observations, reflections, writings created by Michel Montaigne "Experiences". The summary of this work in an extremely concise form can be expressed in the phrase: the original view of the Renaissance writer on life and the prospects for the development of contemporary society.

The collection itself consists of three volumes. The essays contained in each of them are collected in the chronological order of their writing.

The first volume of "Experiments" by Michel Montaigne narrates in the form of an essay:

- about how the same thing is achieved in different ways;

- that our intentions are the judge of our actions;

- ohidleness;

- about grief;

- about liars and many other things.

The second volume was written in the same form of a collection by M. Montaigne. "Experiments" were filled with the author's retelling of ancient and Christian authors about different spheres of human existence:

- about his fickleness;

- about things postponed until tomorrow;

- about parental love, - about conscience;

- about books etc.

Third volume tells readers:

- about flattering and useful;

- about the art of conversation;

- about communication;

- about human will;

- about vanity and dozens of other human activities.

Historical conditions for the emergence of Montaigne humanism

Freethinking in medieval France under Charles IX was deadly. There was a bloody (essentially civil) war between Catholics and Protestants. The Catholic Church, motivated by the Council of Trent of 1545-1563, fought the Reformation in the homeland of Michel Montaigne by militarizing the Franciscan order and granting it emergency powers.

The terrible times of the Inquisition have returned to the social and political life of France. The Catholic Church revived forceful methods to suppress the growing Protestantism.

The Franciscan and Jesuit orders controlled society, fighting against those who disagreed. The warrior-monks were allowed by the Pope, at the behest of their chief, to commit even mortal sins against the Gentiles. Keep up with the Jesuits in cruelty and punitivegovernment shares. In his hometown of Bordeaux, a 15-year-old boy, a future philosopher, witnessed a collective execution arranged by Marshal Montmorency, authorized to appease the townspeople who rebelled against an increase in the s alt tax. 120 people were hanged and the city parliament was liquidated.

At a time of general fear, a collection of essays was written that absorbed the experience of Montaigne, a citizen writer and humanist. At that time, blood was continuously shed in France … The philosopher, like the whole society, apprehended with a shudder the massacre provoked by Marie de Medici in Paris during the so-called St. Bartholomew's Night, when up to 30 thousand French Protestants were slaughtered.

Monen himself did not fundamentally join any of the opposing religious and political forces, wisely seeking civil peace. Among his friends were both Catholics and Protestants. It is not surprising that arbitrariness, dogmatism and reactionaryness reigning in the country were ideologically opposed by the human and philosophical experience of Montaigne.

In the last period of his life, the philosopher supported the coming to power of Emperor Henry IV, who was able to stop religious wars and put an end to feudal fragmentation.

Civil and human position

He contrasted the principle "to philosophize is to doubt" dogmatic theology, scholasticism, abstracted from life, motivatedly criticized Catholics in religious impiety, non-observance of Christian commandments.

At the same time, we note that, in essence, the philosopher was not a tribune, a public leader. Although for his contemporaries they seem a revelationconclusions drawn by Michel de Montaigne.

"Experiments", written by the hand of a philosopher-citizen, contain regret that "heavenly and divine teaching" is in "wicked hands." He realized this, "passing the stream of thoughts through himself." (His personality should be understood.)

Montaigne, as a person, was characterized by irritability of the mind, so he preferred not to enter into debates and worked exclusively in solitude. He read his works to a narrow circle of friends and was quite satisfied with this. His critical mind did not accept ranks and authorities. Michel's favorite phrase was the following: "There are no heroes for a valet!" He correlated everything that happened with his personality. "My metaphysics is the study of oneself," said the philosopher.

The writer's office was on the third floor of the castle tower of Montaigne, and its windows were lit until late…

Teaching about wisdom in everyday life

The book "Experiments" by Montaigne was super popular in Europe in the 16th-17th centuries. The sensitive mind of the scientist caught the new social realities of the formation of bourgeois society. The philosopher in the conditions of totalitarianism called to life the ancient ideas of individualism, tolerance, ironic attitude to reality.

Montaigne declares that for a person an absolute evil is not some eclectic devil invented by the Inquisition. Evil, from his point of view, is a belief without a smile, a fanatical belief in the only truth that is not subject to doubt. It is she who serves as the basis for the unfolding of a spiral of violence in society.

The philosopher searched and found(which we will discuss below) the principles of building an ideal society. He regarded individual freedom as the highest value.

According to the philosopher, for a happy life of a person, pleasure and concern for one's own he alth must be balanced in it. Indeed, judging by the logic of the ancient sages, most pleasures beckon and attract people in order to destroy him.

In his book, de Montaigne ("Experiments") reproduces the ancient doctrine, forgotten in medieval Europe, about the traps of consciousness to which a person is subject.

In particular, very few people are given to realize the real natural beauty hidden behind external simplicity. It is not human nature to strain one's mind in order to catch the "silent radiance of beauty."

Own path of knowledge

As an alternative book to the ideas of ideology, subsequently condemned by its author himself - the Catholic Church, Michel Montaigne wrote "Experiments".

The summary of this collection of essays can be expressed in the ideas of bourgeois individualism. The three-volume book is the brilliant thoughts of an educated aristocrat, not connected by a common plot, anticipating the Renaissance. This is the work of a deeply erudite person. In total, the collection of essays contains more than 3,000 quotations from medieval and ancient authors. More often than others, the philosopher quoted Virgil, Plato, Horace, Epicurus, Seneca, Plutarch. Among Christian sources, he mentions thoughts from the Gospel, the Old Testament, the sayings of the Apostle Paul.

At the intersection of the ideas of Stoicism, Epicureanism, critical skepticism, Michel Montaigne created"Experiences".

Summary of the main work of the great Frenchman's life was not in vain studied for two centuries in European educational institutions of the Renaissance. After all, this essay in fact represents the philosophical views of a scientist who deeply comprehends the prospects for social development.

His saying that "the souls of shoemakers and emperors are cut according to the same pattern" became two centuries later, in 1792, the epigraph of the newspaper - the printing organ of the Great French Revolution.

Sources of philosopher's ideas

Obviously, during the counter-reformation, the philosophical experience of Montaigne, challenging the position of the Catholic Church, could only be secretly poured out on paper.

His views were contrary to the official, dogmatic and pro-Catholic. He had powerful theoretical sources from which he drew ideas for his views on the future social order.

The scientist, knowing perfectly the Latin and ancient Greek languages, read in the originals and knew perfectly the works of the leading ancient philosophers. The philosopher was also known as one of the most knowledgeable interpreters of the Bible in France.

Studying the vices of civilization on the principle of antithesis

In the 16th century, in another hemisphere, the final conquest of the New World by Europeans took place. Just at the time when M. Montaigne wrote "Experiments". A summary of this aggressive and unfriendly action was also reflected in the main book of the philosopher.

The scientist knew in sufficient detail about the course of the campaigns in America. In the service of the king, heattended meetings organized by the missionaries of the monarch with noble Indian leaders. And he himself had a servant who dedicated ten years of his life to serving in the New World.

The real appearance of the enriched nouveau riche - the conquerors of America - turned out to be unsightly. M. Montaigne (“Experiments”) boldly showed him in a civil way. The description of the essence of this first geopolitical interaction between the peoples of the two continents was reduced to banal enslavement. Instead of worthily carrying the teachings of Christ into the world, the Europeans went the way of mortal sins.

The indigenous population of the New World turned out to be in the biblical role of the lamb at the slaughter. The scientist emphasized that the people living without we alth and poverty, without inheritance and division of property, without slavery, without wine, bread, metal, possessed spiritual qualities of a higher order than Europeans. The vocabulary of the natives did not even have words for lies, deceit, forgiveness, betrayal, envy, pretense.

The philosopher emphasizes the harmony of interpersonal relations of the indigenous population of the New World. The social foundations of their communities have not been spoiled by civilization. They call those who are equal in age brothers, the younger ones - children, the older ones - fathers. The elders, dying, give their property to the community.

Humanist on the moral superiority of early civilizations

Indicating that in crafts and urban planning the tribes of the New World were not inferior to Europeans (Mayan and Aztec architecture), the scientist emphasized their moral superiority.

According to the criteria of decency, honesty, generosity, straightforwardness, savages turned out to be muchabove their conquerors. And this is what ruined them: they betrayed themselves, they sold themselves. Millions of natives were killed, their whole way of civilization was "turned upside down".

The scientist asks the question: “Was there another, civilizational development option? Why shouldn't the Europeans incline these virgin souls with Christian values to lofty ideals? If that happened, humanity would be better.”

Faith and God in the understanding of the philosopher

Showing the failure of the counter-reformation ideology, the scientist at the same time brings to the minds of readers an unusually pure and clear understanding of the phenomenon of God and faith.

He sees God as an abstract, timeless, omnipresent being, not connected either with human logic or with the course of everyday life. Thus, the category of God is linked with the existing nature, with the root cause of all things Michel Montaigne ("Experiments").

The content of this concept, according to the scientist, is given to a person to realize only in a transcendental way, through faith.

This perception of God is associated with such profound personality changes that, in fact, a person who follows the path of faith goes through a whole evolution. And at the end of this path, gifts are received, in fact, by another creature.

Knowing God through deep faith means entering into direct communion with him directly. And this, in turn, serves as a protection for the sincere believer from being shaken by “human accidents” (violence of the authorities, the will of political parties, an addiction to change, a sudden change of views).

However, Montaigne is skeptical about the idea of the immortality of the soul.

Development of Stoicism and Epicureanism

Religious dogmatism Michel Montaigne opposed the cultural ancient traditions of epicureanism and stoicism. Like Epicurus, the French philosopher called ethics (the science of morality and ethics) the most important for the harmonization of society and the "medicine for the soul" of every person. It is ethics, in his opinion, that can become a bridle for the pernicious passions of a person. The book "Experiments" pays tribute to stoic views about the superiority of pure reason over the changing feelings of man.

Michel Montaigne, comprehending the main ethical values, puts virtue above any human qualities, including passive kindness. After all, virtue is the result of reasonable purposeful volitional efforts and leads a person to overcome his passions. It is thanks to virtue, according to Montaigne, that a person can change his fate, avoid the fatal necessities that threaten him.

The scientist formulated many postulates of modern European culture. Moreover, his thinking is extremely figurative. For example, showing the viciousness of the artificial inequality of people in a feudal society, the philosopher speaks of “the senselessness of standing on stilts, because you still have to walk on your own. In addition, a person even on the most ex alted throne will sit on his own seat.”

Conclusion

Modern readers, surprisingly, organically perceive the author's style in which Montaigne wrote "Experiments". Their reviews emphasize closenessthe style of a medieval author with modern bloggers: the author wrote at his leisure to fill his free time with this activity. He did not go into the details of the design, structuring of his work.

Montaigne simply wrote one essay after another on the topic of the day, as well as under the influence of events, books, personalities.

It is remarkable that this book is imbued with the personality of the author. As you know, he originally addressed it to his friends in memory of himself. And it succeeded! The writing is friendly. In it, the reader often finds good advice for himself. The kind an older brother would give him.